The Influence Of Tests On Teaching Backwash

The Influence Of Tests On Teaching Backwash In the field of foreign language teaching and learning, there are two kinds of opposed views about the relationship between the language testing and the language teaching. One side is that the language testing should be known as the supplementary means for the language teaching. According to Davies (1968: 5), the good test should follow and ape the teaching. This is a point of controversy to most of researchers and teachers. The other side asserts that the relationship between teaching and testing is should regarded as partnership among each other. (Hughes, 2003: 3) That is commonly accepted among many scholars and teachers. Moreover, the language test is expected to support the good teaching and can be used as the corrective reflection and direction to the bad teaching. Furthermore, the influence of testing on teaching and learning is defined as backwash which can be either beneficial or harmful. (Hughes, 2003) Although, the test can impact the teaching on several aspects such as: c urriculum, materials, teaching method and content, attitude and behavior, and learning (Alderson Wall, 1993), the existence and the nature of the influence would be affected some elements such as: the teacher, the school, the test itself. (Spratt, 2005; Alderson Wall, 1993) Therefore, In addition, the existence and the nature of the backwash will be different in various teaching and testing context as well. (Alderson Wall, 1993) In the first part I show the complicated phenomenon of the language testing backwash in the language teaching generally. Specifically, there is a very close connection between the College English Test ¼Ã‹â€ CET ¼Ã¢â‚¬ °and college English teaching in China. (Gu, 2005; Li, 2009; Ceng, 1999; Shao, 2003) The CET is proved that it is an effective means of measurement for its result can accurately reflect the College English teaching and learning situation both of one university at different stages and different universities at the same stage. (Gu, 2005) With a great number of elements which can affect the CET and the college English teaching and learning, in second part of this essay I discuss the existence and the nature of the CET backwash. However, there are a great many of weakness which shouldnt be neglected, it is eager to find out some ways and means to achieve the beneficial washback of the CET to assist the college teaching efficiently. In the last part of this essay, I will give some suggestion how to promote the beneficial backwash of the CET with the theory of foreign language acquisition. The influence of tests on teaching- backwash 1.1 Definition of Backwash The influence of testing on teaching and learning which can be either beneficial or harmful is defined as backwash (it is known as washback as well). (Bailey, 1996: 259; Buck, 1988: 17; Hughes, 2003: 1). According to Taylor (2005), the backwash of tests has affected on numerous aspects of educational processes for a long time. It could believe that language tests backwash has been influencing on language teaching and learning constantly. As Hughes (2003:1) points that the test which is regarded as a significant one could command all relative teaching and learning activities. Specifically, the term backwash has been regarded as the way in which tests influence on teaching such as: designs of curriculum, choices of teaching materials, and conductions of classes. (Hughes, 2003:2) Therefore, the testing is playing an important role in what is taught in teaching context and how it is underway. However, the backwash of language tests would be regarded as either positive or negative. When the testing exerts the beneficial influence on language teaching, it could enhance the good teachings and reflect the bad teaching correctively as well. And the testing can play the role in language teaching as a partner of that process, which is perceived as an accurate relationship between teaching and testing. (Hughes, 2003:2) Otherwise, when a tests content and testing techniques are aimed to assess the restricted language ability only such as some tests doesnt test learners necessary language abilities (listening, speaking, writing and reading) directly, it would exert the harmful influence on language teaching. (Hughes, 2003; Taylor, 2005). The negative backwash would mislead teachers and learners to concentrate on doing what is regarded as unnecessary for achieving high score, and narrow the teaching/learning context as well. (Alderson Wall, 1993; Taylor, 2005) Although language tes ts play a decisive role in language teaching and learning, the influence of them may show different results in different teaching and testing situation. 1.2 Factors influenced by the backwash The result of studies shows the backwash for several views of language teaching in classroom to a certain extent, such as: curriculum, materials, teaching method and content, attitude and behavior, and learning. (Spratt, 2005; Cheng, 1997) In the view of the curriculum, tests are always regarded as one of references for the change of curriculums. (Pearson, 1988) In addition, Alderson (1986) agrees that the innovation of language testing is considered as an influential factor which can cause the innovation of language curriculum. However, Vernon (1956) emphasizes that some teachers always overlook parts of curriculum which couldnt conduce to raise scores of tests directly for they concentrate on training test excessively. Besides the testing, there are many other factors such as the nature of course, the class size, stakes of tests, and schools could affect curriculum as well. (Alderson Wall, 1993; Lam, 1994; Lyon, 1996; Read Hayes, 2003; Watanabe, 1996) Therefore, it can conclude that in various teaching and testing situation, the backwash for the curriculum will show in different ways, and backwash may not exist in some situations at all yet. (Spratt, 2005) The aspect of backwash for teaching materials, many researches point that the revision of language testing can cause the innovation of language teaching materials usage as well. (Alderson Lyons, 1996; Watanabe, 2000) In addition, some studies point that when the language test gets closer the backwash for the selection of language teaching materials is greater. (Alderson Wall, 1993; Lumley Stoneman, 2000; Alderson Lyons, 1996) Besides, we cant neglect that the aim of choosing and using some teaching materials is to improve relevant language abilities and some is to enhance testing techniques merely. (Spratt, 2005) Consequently, tests can impact the usage of teaching materials, but is not the main factor to determine it. For the view of teaching methods and content, Spratt (2005) sports that tests especially high-stakes tests can affect the implementation of teaching activities and the choosing of teaching contents. For example, the study of TOEFL from Alderson and Lyons (1996) indicates that teachers teaching techniques and classroom activities have a great many difference between TOEFL and non- TOEFL classes. Moreover, high-stakes tests would let teachers to spend lots of class time in simulating tasks of tests or promoting techniques and strategies of tests. (Shohamy, 1996) However, some researches find that some teachers believes students efficient language skills play the most important role in passing language tests. (Watanabe, 2000) Therefore, it could conclude that testing is not the only factor to lead the variety of teaching methods which is related to the diversity of teachers and teaching contexts as well. In the aspects of attitude and behavior, Pearson (1988) points that testing has impacts which are both in positive and negative side on attitudes, behavior, and motivation among teachers, students, and parents. For instance, students always recognize that tests let them study hard for achieving high scores, however they also worried about testing cannot reflect their all learning aspects accurately. (Cheng, 1998) Furthermore, some teachers think that testing is a proper way to ensure whether aims of syllabus have been achieved. (Morris, 1972) Nevertheless, testing always soaks students, teachers, and parents in the atmosphere of anxiety and fear, as all of them worried about the result of tests. (Shohamy, 1996) Under this kind of pressure, students couldnt play their normal level; at the same time teachers would do whatever can help their students to achieve higher scores. (Alderson Wall, 1993; Spratt, 2005) The connotation for considering the backwash for learning is to discuss whether language testing can make students learn more and better. (Wall, 2000) Studies with mentioning students learning strategies and performance point that in the particular testing context students test scores would have at least ten percent improvements through several months of related conduction for testing preparation. However, we are not sure whether these finding can be applied to other learning and testing context. (Smith, 1991) Moreover, Andrew (2002) emphasize that after preparing the oral part of language tests some students just could achieve testing strategies and learn formulaic expression by rote but couldnt interact meaningfully or appropriately yet. 1.3 Factors affect the backwash The teacher, the school and the exam itself are known as the influential elements which can affect the occurrence and the nature of the backwash. (Spratt, 2005; Alderson Wall, 1993) Above all, the most important factor which can affect the backwash is the teacher. Specifically, all of teachers belief about teaching and testing, teachers attitudes towards the test, teachers educational level and experience, and teachers own personality will impact whether backwash exists and it is beneficial or harmful. (Smith, 1991; Alderson Wall, 1993; Alderson Lyons, 1996; Watanabe, 1996; Shohamy, 1996, Spratt, 2005) Moreover, the size of school, the education philosophy of school, and the attitude towards tests of schools administrator are regarded as the factors which can influence the backwash. (Watanabe, 2000; Smith, 1991; Read Hayes, 2003) According to Alderson and Wall (1993), schools can curb the appearance of the backwash and affect its nature even for communicative tests. In addition, test itself would be able to impact the existence and the quality of backwash. (Spratt, 2005; Alderson Wall, 1993) Morrow (1986) asserts that the language test which can measure candidates ability of language application can be considered as a qualified test with powerful and beneficial backwash. In summary, language testing can exert influence on language teaching and learning indeed, but it will present as either positive or negative. As the backwash can impact lots of aspects of language teaching and learning process; the existence, the nature, and the deep of it must be diverse in different views. Moreover, the backwash is also affected by some elements, so its nature must be independent in different teaching or testing context neither. Therefore, the backwash will be shown in extremely different states in different teaching and testing context. Even though in a particular situation, each aspect of the backwash must be different neither. 2. The backwash for College English Test (CET) in college English teaching across China 2.1 Introduction of CET in China The College English Test (CET) is a national unified test which is sponsored by High Education Department of the Minister of Education of China and administrated by The National College English Testing Committee. (CET Testing Committee) After completing the English foundation course in the second school year, all of university students across China are permitted to participate in this test. (Yang, 2000) There is national wide range of stakeholders (teachers, students, and administrators) involved in this test. In other words, the CET can be regarded as a high-stakes test. Besides, it is proved that the CET is an effective means of measurement for its result can accurately reflect the CE teaching and learning situation both of one university at different stages and different universities at the same stage. (Gu, 2005) As the high status and reputation of this test, passing the CET-4 is regarded as a qualification to obtain the B.A degree among the majority of Chinese universities. Therefore, there is an extremely close relationship between the CET and the College English teaching and learning indeed. Furthermore, the results of many researches show that the CET can exert beneficial washback on The CE teaching and learning. (Li, 2009; Gu, 2005; Shao, 2003) Specifically, the execution of College English Teaching Syllabus has been promoted in CE teaching and learning by the CET. (Gu, 2005) However, there is harmful influence on CE teaching and learning from the implementation of CET as well. (Li, 2009; Gu, 2005; Shao, 2003) Excessive using of coaching materials makes classroom teaching be confined for preparing the test, which results textbooks cant be completed ideally. (Gu, 2005) The washback of CET on CE teaching and learning is either positive or negative and will be discussed specifically as follows. 2.2 The positive backwash of the CET We have discussed that the teacher, the school, and the test itself are the main elements which can affect the existence and the nature of washback on language teaching and learning above. Practically, as the CET is a high-stakes test, it makes all of administrators, teachers, and students to think highly of it. (Hughes, 2003) Moreover, one of the CETs aims is to promote the implementation of College English Curriculum Requirements in College English teaching and learning. (CET Testing Committee) In other words, to think highly of the CET among participants could be seem as to attach importance to College English teaching and learning. Therefore, one of the positive wahback of the CET is that it can guarantee the basic stage of implementation of college classroom English teaching. Moreover, according to the validation study of the CET (Yang Weir, 1998) shows that the CET is a highly reliable and valid test with rational design and can measure non-English majors English proficiency exactly and objectively at the tertiary level across China. So it can guarantee that the CET can provide the sensible feedback to assist college English teachers and students to promote their teaching and learning. The most important factor to warrant the positive washback is the design of question forms. (Gu, 2005; Li, 2009) Specifically, in order to fully reflect the importance of listening ability, the part of listening comprehension occupies a considerable proportion in the CET. Besides, the question forms contain not only the objective choice but also the subjective dictation with relatively diversity. Moreover, the selection of subject includes both narrative passages and dialogues with strong practicability. As reading is one of the main resources to achieve the information for people, training reading ability play a significant important role in college English teaching requirements. For meeting this demand, the CET has appreciable amount of reading tests with rational question form design. All of the selected reading texts are in the form of discourse. For the great percentage of listening and reading in CET, both teachers and students think highly of promoting these two kinds of abili ties actively. Furthermore, as the productivity and practicability of these parts of tasks, teachers pay more attention to use of authentic teaching materials. (Gu, 2005; Shao, 2003) By this way, students applied language abilities can be developed essentially. Gradually, with the abilities development, students confidence and interesting on learning English has been enhanced as finding themselves can read original English discourse and understand English radio and TV programs days after days. Therefore, the other positive washback of the CET is that it can innovate college English teaching and promote college teaching and learning level across China. Tests of writing and speaking are the most important means to measure whether students have the ability of language application (Hughes, 2003). As the writing part in the CET, it sets the tasks and selects the samples as expression of attitude and information with all students familiar topic to evaluate students communicative applied ability in written English. (Gu, 2005; Shao, 2003) It guides a clear direction for teachers teaching and students learning so that they can understand the centre of college English teaching and learning of non-English major has converted from knowledge of language to language itself. In other word, this kind of washback makes both teachers and students pay more attention on training of language application. For the speaking test of CET is optional, which means a student must get an exact higher score in the written part of the CET (more than 560 points in the CET-4 and more than 530 in the CET-6) who can be permitted to participate in the oral part of th e CET. (Li, 2009; Gu, 2005; Shao, 2003) In order to achieve the opportunity to take part in speaking test, most of students eager to get the highest possible scores in written part. At the same time, it motivates students study hard. As it is regarded as extrinsic motivation which is not as good as the intrinsic one but is better than nothing. (Alderson Wall, 1993) With achieving higher scores, students integrated language abilities have been improved efficiently. Above all, the part of speaking of the CET exerts the beneficial washback on college English teaching and learning as they enhance the initiative of students. 2.3 The negative washback of the CET However, as the students performance of the CET is an important symbol of English teaching quality in each college and also the focus of competition among them in China, the results of the CET are given undue importance. (Li, 2009; Gu, 2005; Shao, 2003) Specifically, in the fourth semester teachers just use the CET-oriented materials completely such as various simulated tests and the former CET papers to prepare the CET which is coming in June without any active classroom activity among students. They believe that test-oriented materials can help students to familiarize the test format and train their time management skill so that enhance the passing rate. (Gu, 2005) Using them as teaching materials in classrooms is inappropriate, as the CET is just the measurement not the purpose of college English teaching. Therefore, on the aspect of English teaching time distribution, there has been a phenomenon that the regular teaching time has been compressed and the curriculum has been distor ted among a great many of universities. Moreover, as the part of speaking in the CET is still optional until now, it must let teachers and students neglect to promote the oral ability during the period of test preparation. In this teaching environment, students are forced to face a lot of papers practice and the inevitable appearance of students dummy English have become increasingly unusual. Finally, students integrated applied abilities haven been promoted adequately with the lack of productive language skills training. Moreover, the score and the certificate have the considerable influence on opportunity of students future learning and job. (Li, 2009; Gu, 2005; Shao, 2003) It potentially makes some students regard achieving the CET Certificate as their final goal of learning English during their undergraduate study period. Consequently, after passing the CET, lots of non-English major students dont attach importance on English learning any more with this shallow attitude. Therefore, the CET cant motivate students to learn English intrinsically. On the aspect of test itself, it restricts students real language ability and interactive language ability. According to Krashen (1982), the most effective way for people to acquire language is achieving comprehensible input. Only this kind of language input which is slightly higher than learners current level can help learners obtain the better learning effect. As excessive emphasis on the initiative of the CET, the objectivity and impartiality of the score, the stability of the test level, the most of question forms of the CET are the multiple choices. (Li, 2002) Hence, students stray from the right path of learning English with the neglect of the cultivation about real language input and communicative ability training to concentrate on grammar, lexical analysis, testing skills unduly. In summary, the CET itself does exert the certain influence on the college English teaching in China. However, the research (Gu, 2005) shows that some schools and some classes which use textbooks and other teaching materials creatively have the better performance and higher scores in the CET. Therefore, the effects of the CET are much less than other elements such as the attitudes of schools, teachers, and students towards the CET; teachers teaching level; teachers academic level; teaching methods; and students initiative. The CET is just a very small part of the whole college English teaching system. Besides, as there are a great many of weakness which shouldnt be neglected, it is eager to find out some ways and means to achieve the beneficial washback of the CET to assist the college teaching efficiently. Promote the beneficial washback of the CET As there is a close relationship between the CET and the college English teaching indeed, the CET not only can but also should exert beneficial backwash on college English teaching. Therefore, we attempt to find out the way how we can achieve as more backwash as possible. The possible suggestion will be argued as follows: Aim to college teaching syllabi, adopt a large number of direct language testing Direct language testing means testing communicative language skills directly with using as many authentic texts and tasks as possible. (Hughes, 2003) Using direct language testing can measure students skills what we would like to foster efficiently and promote the implementation of related practice for those skills sufficiently during the regular teaching time. (Bachman, 2000) Therefore, in the CET using a great many direct language testing so that test whether students have the effective communicative language ability in the certain context. In this way, we would be able to encourage students to practice those interactive language skills as much as possible. Consequently, we can obtain the beneficial backwash from the CET to college English teaching in China as figure 1 shows. Sample tasks of writing test as much authentically and practicably as possible Adding numerous authentic and practicable tasks in writing test can promote the unpredictable of the CET. In addition, the creativity of teaching and learning can be developed rather than concentrate on what they can predict. (Hughes, 2003) Consequently, students expression ability in written English can be promoted exactly. 3.3 Give the same importance to speaking test as others Change the part of speaking in the CET to be compulsory rather than optional. Some research shows that Chinese college students oral ability is the weakest one among others. (Ceng, 1999) According to that, promoting their oral ability must be enforced. Testing the abilities which you want to incent can achieve the beneficial backwash of test sufficiently. (Hughes, 2003) Therefore, adding the oral part in the whole CET compulsorily can motivate teachers and students to promote this skill consciously. 3.4 Provide assistance to teachers in order to adapt the new test pattern Introduction of a new pattern of the test may lead many teachers feel they dont adapt it. (Hughes, 2003) Transfer the CET from grammar and vocabulary oriented to be more communicative would make a large number of teachers feel they are not familiar to enhance students communicative skills. Therefore, essential training and assistance for teachers could avoid imbalance and chaos to support the help to teaching. 3.5 Reduce the status of the CET The figure 2 shows the relationship between the CET and the college English teaching and learning currently. Therefore, if make the provision that is changing the CET from the compulsive test to be the optional test during undergraduate study. Besides, abolish all unreasonable regulations which stipulate CET certificate is one of qualifications to obtain the B.A degree. This is the basic condition to reform college English teaching with getting rid of test-oriented education. We could achieve the positive backwash of the CET to establish more harmonious relationship (which is shown in figure 3) between the CET and the college English teaching in China. To summarize, the innovation of the CET to be more communicative, more practicable, more productive would be able to promote the beneficial backwash of it to influence college English teaching across China energetically. Conclusion The present essay has discussed the relationship between the language testing and language teaching and learning from generally to specifically. The effect of the language testing is defined as backwash to impact several views of language teaching and learning. In a certain teaching and testing context, the backwash of CET has been known as to affect the implementation of the college English teaching curriculum; the using teaching materials; the teaching method and content; the administers, the teachers, and the students attitudes towards college English teaching and learning. Additionally, as there are some elements affect the deep and the nature of the CET backwash, it presents either beneficial or harmfully in different aspects of the college English teaching across China. Finally, with some theories of language testing and foreign language acquisition this essay have illustrate some proposals how to achieve as more beneficial backwash of the CET as possible. However, as the importance of communicative college English teaching is a growing concern, the demands of the productivity, the practicability, and the communicability of the CET have been received greater attention in China. Therefore, it needs to invest more and research to enhance the quality of the CET so that promote the beneficial backwash of it to cooperate with the college language teaching and learning perfectly.

Treatment of Eve in Paradise Lost Essay -- John Milton

The treatment of eve in Paradise Lost We can see the poem deals with the entire story of man's fall from grace, including background for Satan's motives. In Paradise Lost, Eve was tricked by Satan, who assumed the form of a serpent, into eating from the Tree of Knowledge. Satan had whispered into her ear when she was asleep, and when he spoke to her later, he used his cunning to mislead her: He ended, and his words replete with guile Into her heart too easy entrance won. Fixed on the fruit she gazed, which to behold Might tempt alone, and in her ears the sound Yet rung of his persuasive words, impregned With reason, to her seeming, and with truth, (Paradise Lost, 733-739). In the poem we get the picture that Adam is lamenting for the mistake they have done and specially blames and insults Eve's female nature and wonders why do god ever created her. She begs his forgiveness, and pleads with him not to leave her. She reminds him that the snake tricked her, but she fully accepts the blame for sinning against both God and him. She argues that unity and love c...

Ethical Decision Making Essay

Ethics One definition–Ethics is the code of moral principles and values that governs the behaviors of a person or group with respect to what is right or wrong. Ethical Decision Making The Gut Test–Most of the time you’ll know if something is right or wrong. If it feels fishy, it probably is. Common Ethical Principles Utilitarianism–An ethical choice is one that leads to the†greatest good for the greatest number of people. † Decision takes into consideration of costs and benefits to â€Å"society,† not just for the decision maker or those close to him. Justice–An ethical choice is one that distributes benefits and burdens equitably. Under this principle, both processes and outcomes can be evaluated. Procedural Justice: fairness in the process of deciding/doing/distributing†¦ Distributive/Outcome Justice: equality of outcome/result. Disclosure–A decision is ethical if the public would think it is right. â€Å"How would I feel if my behavior was revealed on†¦ (e. g. , The WSJ, nightly news) or to†¦ (e. g. , my parents, my pastor, my children)? CoCo Framework Control–control comprises those elements in an organization that support people in the achievement of the organization’s objectives. The elements in an organization includes its resources, systems, processes, culture, structure, and tasks. Organization–People working in pursuit of objectives. An organization can be a legal entity, a system or process that produces the outputs to meet a particular objective. The smallest unit of a n organization is the individual person. A person performs a task, guided by an understanding of its purpose (the objective to be achieved) and supported by capability (information, skills, resources, and supplies). The person will need a sense of commitment to perform the task well over time. The person will monitor his or her performance and the external environment to learn about how to perform the task better and about changes to be made. The same is true of any team or work group. In any organization of people, the essence is purpose, capability, commitment, monitoring, and learning. General Categories of Objectives Effectiveness and efficiency of operations–Related to organization’s goals, such as customer service, efficient use of resources, profitability and meeting social obligations. This includes safeguarding of the organization’s resources from inappropriate use or loss and ensuring that liabilities are identified and managed. Reliability of internal and external reporting–Maintenance of proper accounting records, the reliability of information used within the organization, and of information published for third parties. This includes the protection of records against two main types of fraud: the concealment of theft and the distortion of results. Compliance with applicable laws and regulations and internal policies–Includes objectives related to ensuring that the organization’s affairs are conducted in accordance with legal and regulatory obligations and internal policies. Control is effective to the extent that it provides reasonable assurance that the organization will achieve its objectives reliably. Control includes the identification and mitigation of risks. Two more fundamental risks to the viability and success of the organization: Failure to maintain the organization’s capability to identify and exploit opportunities; Failure to maintain the organization’s resilience. Resilience refers to the organization’s capability to respond and adapt to unexpected risks and opportunities, and to make decisions on the basis of telltale indications in the absence of definitive information. Important Concepts in Understanding of Control (a) Control is affected by people throughout the organization. Board of directors, management, and all other staff. b) People are accountable for achieving objectives as well as effectiveness of control that supports the achievement of objectives. (c) Organizations are constantly interacting and adapting. Organizations are constantly adapting in response to changes in the external environment and changes in the internal environment. For control to be effective, the control elements must fit with the organization’s objective, change and adapt. When changes are contemplated to any aspect of the organization, the control consequences should be considered. (d) Control can be expected to provide only reasonable assurance, not absolute assurance. Two reasons absolute control is not possible, even with due diligence exercised: First is limitations of human capabilities. Faulty judgement, human error. Second is cost/benefit considerations. (e) Effective control demands a balance be maintained: i. Between autonomy and integration. The balance between centralization of decentralization, imposing constrains to achieve consistency and granting freedom to act. ii. Between the status quo and adapting to change. The balance between demanding greater consistency to gain efficiency and granting greater flexibility to respond to change. The four pillars of CoCo framework Purpose Establishment and communication of objectives; Identification and assessment of significant risks; Establishment of policies that support the organization in achieving its objectives and managing its risks; the policies must be communicated and practiced, so that people know what is expected of them and their scope of freedom to act; The organization’s plans to achieve its objectives should be communicated and established; Objectives and related plans should include measurable performance targets and indicators. Commitment Shared ethical values should be established, communicated, and practiced throughout the organization; Human resource policies should be consistent with the organization’s ethical values and with the achievement of its objectives; Clear definition of authority, responsibility, and accountability; they should be consistent with an organization’s objectives so that decisions and actions are taken by the appropriate people; An atmosphere of mutual trust should be fostered to support the flow of information between people and their effective performance towards achieving this organization’s objective. Capability People should have the necessary knowledge, skills and tools to support the achievement of the organization’s objectives; Communication process should support the organization’s values and its achievement of objectives; Timely communication of sufficient and relevant information to enable people to perform their assigned responsibilities; The decisions and actions of different pars of the organization should be coordinated; Considering the organization’s objectives and risks, control activities should be designed as an integral part of the organization. Monitoring and Learning External and internal environments should be monitored to obtain information that may signal a need to re-evaluate the organization’s objectives or control; Performance should be evaluated against the targets and indicators identified in the organization’s objectives and plans; The assumptions behind an organization’s objectives should be periodically challenged; Information needs and information systems should be reassessed as objectives change or as reporting deficiencies are dentified; Follow-up procedures should be established to ensure appropriate change or action occurs; Management should periodically assess the effectiveness of control in its organization and communicate the results to those to whom it (management) is responsible. Ouchi Framework Control is interpreted by some authoritative persons as the sum of interpersonal influence relations in an organization. It is equivalent to power. Ouchi about control: The problem of organ ization is the problem of obtaining cooperation among a collection of individuals or units who share only partially congruent objectives. Market Control In a market, prices convey all of the information necessary for efficient decision-making. Markets deal with the control problem through their ability to precisely measure and reward individual contributions. The firm can simply reward each employee in direct proportion to his contribution. The market mechanism permits individuals to pursue non-organizational goal, but at a personal loss of reward. The market mechanism can be very effective only if strict conditions apply. Contributions must be measurable, and a norm of reciprocity assures that, if one party in a transaction attempts to cheat another, the cheater, if discovered, will be punished by all members of the social system, not only by the victim. The severity of the punishment will typically far exceed the crime, thus effectively deterring potential future opportunities. If an agent of an organization cheats to yield higher reward, once discovered, it is the organization that will suffer the punishment. Bureaucratic Control Involves close personal surveillance and direction of subordinates by supervisors. Strict rules and explicit work routines apply. Employees are evaluated based on compliance to rules. Bureaucracies rely on a mixture of close evaluation with a socialized acceptance of common objectives. Supervisors have the right to direct the effort of subordinates on an ad hoc basis. Ad hoc–formed, arranged, or done for a particular purpose only. Rule contains less information than a price. It is an arbitrary standard against which a comparison is yet to be made. Compliance: In exchange for pay, an employee gives up autonomy in certain areas to his organizational superiors, thus permitting them to direct his work activities and to monitor his performance. legitimate right to command† Bureaucratic mechanism is not as efficient as market mechanism in terms of administrative overhead consumption. It also relies heavily on monitoring, which can offend people’s sense of autonomy, which will have a negative effect on their motivation. Cultural/Clan Control Attains cooperation by selecting and socializing individuals so that their individual objectives substantially overlap with the organization’s objectives. Works best in an environment where task performance is inherently ambiguous, and teamwork is common, so that precise evaluation of individual contribution is impossible. The clan mechanism involves internalization of objectives through activities such as ceremonies, stories and rituals, and socialization process. It requires social agreement on values and reliefs. This mechanism reply upon a relatively complete socialization process which effectively eliminates goal incongruence between individuals. The clan lacks explicit price mechanism of the market and the explicit rules in bureaucracy, it relies for its control upon a deep level of common agreement of what constitutes poor behavior, and requires a high level of commitment on the part of each individual to those socially prescribed behaviors. The clan mechanism cannot cope with diversity and high employee turnover. Such disadvantages make it infeasible as a central control mechanism in modern organizations, but it can be efficient if the social requirements can be met. Social and Informational Prerequisites of Control CoSo Framework Internal Control–Internal control is a process, effected by an entity’s board of directors, management and other personnel, designed to provide reasonable assurance regarding the achievement of objectives in the following categories: Effectiveness and efficiency of operations. Reliability of financial reporting. Compliance with applicable laws and regulations. Internal control is a process and is effected by people at every level of the organization. It can be expected to provide only reasonable assurance. It is geared to the achievement of objectives in one or more separate but overlapping areas. Objectives falls into three categories: Operations–relating to efficient and effective use of the entity’s resources. (EPS or cash-flow targets, process efficiency†¦) Financial reporting–relating to preparation of reliable published financial statements. Compliance–relating to the entity’s compliance to applicable laws and regulations. Components Control Environment The atmosphere in which people conduct their activities and carry out their control responsibilities. Related to the entity’s people–their integrity, ethical values, commitment to competence, and the environment in which they operate. The environment includes aspects such as board of directors, audit committee, management’s philosophy and operating style, organizational structure, assignment of authority and responsibility, human resources policies and practices. An effective control environment is a environment where competent people understand their responsibilities, the limits of their authority, and are knowledgable, mindful, and committed to doing what is right and doing it the right way. They are committed to following an organization’s policies and procedures and its ethical and behavioral standards. The control environment encompasses technical competence and ethical commitment. † Evaluation Criterions Integrity and ethical values–Existence and implementation of codes of conduct and other policies egarding acceptable business practices, conflict of interest, and expected standards of ethical or moral behavior. Dealings with employees, suppliers, customers, investors, creditors, competitors, and auditors, etc. Pressure to meet unrealistic targets. Commitment to competency–Formal or informal job descriptions, knowledge and skills to adequately perform jobs. Board of directors or audit committee–Independ ence from management; frequency and timeliness of meetings with management, sufficient and timely communication between management regarding significant organizational activities and financial performance/position. Management’s philosophy and operating style–Whether management is risk adverse, risk neutral, or risk seeking. Frequency or interaction between senior management and operating management. Attitudes towards financial reporting. Organizational structure–Appropriateness of the entity’s organizational structure, and its ability to provide the necessary information flow the manage its objectives. Adequacy of definition of key manager’s responsibilities, and their understanding of these responsibilities. Assignment of authority and responsibility–Assignment of responsibility and delegation of authority to deal with organizational goals and objectives, operating functions and regulatory requirements, including responsibility for information systems and authority to implement changes. Human resource policies and practices–Deals with policies and procedures for hiring, training, promoting, and compensating employees, management of employee retention and turnovers. Risk Assessment A precondition to risk assessment is establishment of objectives. Risk assessment is the identification and analysis of relevant risks to achievement of objectives. There are three categories of objectives: Operations objectives–relate to achievement of an entity’s basic mission, the fundament reason for its existence. Financial reporting objectives–address the preparation of reliable financial statements. Compliance Objectives–entities must conduct their activities in accordance with applicable laws and regulations. Financial Reporting Objectives Existence or Occurrence–Assets, liabilities, and equity exist at a specific date, and recorded transactions actually occurred. Completeness–All transactions, events, and circumstances in a specific period that should have been recorded have been indeed recorded. Rights and Obligation–Assets (rights) and liabilities (obligations) are recorded. Valuation and Allocation–Assets, liabilities, revenue, and expense components are recorded at appropriate amounts in conformity with relevant accounting principles. Transactions are mathematically correct and appropriately summarized, and recorded in the entity’s books and records. Presentation and Disclosure–Items in the financial statements are properly described and correctly classified. Overlap of Objectives An objective in one category may overlap or support an objective in another. Example: â€Å"Close quarterly within 10 workdays. † Primarily an operation objective, but can also be a financial reporting and compliance objective, as the firm is required to file financial statements timely in accordance with SEC regulations. Evaluation of Objectives: Entity level: The entity-wide objectives provide sufficiently broad statements and guidance on what the entity desires to achieve, yet which are specific enough to relate directly to this entity. These objectives need to be communicated to employees and the board of directors. Business plans and budges need to be consistent with the entity-wide objectives and current conditions. Activity level: Strong linkage of activity-level objectives with entity-wide objectives and strategic plans. Important objectives (the critical success factors) need to be identified. tc. Once goals and objectives are determined, identify risks that threaten goals. Stated and implied risks External and internal factors Entity to activity level Risks at the entity level include those associated with external and internal factors. External factors are very much like the economic factors that affect demand for a product, such as: Technological development Changing customer needs or expectations, which can affect product development, production process, customer service, pricing and warranties. Competition New laws and regulations Natural disasters Economic changes Other extraordinary events Internal factors involve the internal conditions of the entity, such as: Disruption in information systems Quality/competency of personnels hired Change in management responsibilities Nature of the entity’s activities Ineffective board or audit committee Activity level involve the potential risks hidden in the normal course of business. Example: objective is to maintain adequate raw material inventory. The risks to not achieving the activity objective might include goods not meeting specifications, or not being delivered in needed quantities, on time, or at acceptable prices. Analyzing risks–risk mapping. Likelihood (frequency) and magnitude. Managing Change: changed operating environment (regulatory or economic), new key personnels, rapid growth (existing systems may be strained to the point where controls break down), new technology, new lines, products, activities†¦ Evaluation of Risks The firm needs to have adequate mechanism to identify risks arising from both external and internal factors. These risks need to be thoroughly assessed in terms of estimated significance based on the likelihood of occurring and magnitude of impact on goal achievement. Then, needed actions must be determined. Significant risks for each significant activity-level objective also need to be identified.

Free Essays on Phantom Of The Opera

â€Å"flesh and blood† signal to the readers that Erik, an antagonist of many heads, exists as a phantom to the people around him instead of a real specter, to the point when Erik receives his poetic justice by meeting his termination and Raoul, the protagonist, gets his retribution, Gaston Leroux strives to ensure that the â€Å"ghost† existed as a real human being. A great mind once said, â€Å"Tell a man a billion stars exist in the universe and he will believe you, tell him the bench has wet paint, and he has to touch it.† Human nature tells us to want to disprove something that someone says. Since Leroux knows this, he plants the seed of curiosity in the reader’s mind, willing them to read on. Only unreasonable people believe that Erik exists as a ghost. When normal readers read this novel, they catch themselves at times thinking, â€Å"No way a ghost could of done that,† or, â€Å"It is not a ghost because of...† Only an irrational hillbilly with 9 teeth could think that Erik ... Free Essays on Phantom Of The Opera Free Essays on Phantom Of The Opera Because of normal disbelief in ghosts and the paranormal, Gaston Leroux goes to great lengths to ensure that, in fact, â€Å"The Opera Ghost really existed.† In the prologue of The Phantom of the Opera, written with the feel of a gothic novel, Mr. Leroux says, â€Å"He was not, as was long believed, a creature of the imagination of the artists, the superstition of the managers, or a product of the absurd and impressionable brains of the young ladies of the ballet, their mothers, the box-keepers, the cloak-room attendants or the concierge,† he uses this explicit sentence to stress the importance that the ghost really exists. Without this assurance of the author, the whole story from here gets doubted by some skeptic, ruining the book for he or she. When Gaston Leroux says, â€Å"Yes, he existed in flesh and blood,† he precludes any thought the reader might have about drug induced hallucinations or real phantoms for that matter. From when the words â€Å"flesh and blood† signal to the readers that Erik, an antagonist of many heads, exists as a phantom to the people around him instead of a real specter, to the point when Erik receives his poetic justice by meeting his termination and Raoul, the protagonist, gets his retribution, Gaston Leroux strives to ensure that the â€Å"ghost† existed as a real human being. A great mind once said, â€Å"Tell a man a billion stars exist in the universe and he will believe you, tell him the bench has wet paint, and he has to touch it.† Human nature tells us to want to disprove something that someone says. Since Leroux knows this, he plants the seed of curiosity in the reader’s mind, willing them to read on. Only unreasonable people believe that Erik exists as a ghost. When normal readers read this novel, they catch themselves at times thinking, â€Å"No way a ghost could of done that,† or, â€Å"It is not a ghost because of...† Only an irrational hillbilly with 9 teeth could think that Erik ...

UNH Admissions Data and Acceptance Rate

UNH Admissions Data and Acceptance Rate With an acceptance rate of 76 percent, the University of New Hampshire is accessible to many applicants. Students with good grades and test scores are likely to be admitted.  To apply, interested students will need to submit an application, official high school transcripts, SAT or ACT scores, and a letter of recommendation. Art and music students will need to submit additional materialscheck the schools website for more information. The school accepts the Common Application, which can save applicants time and energy when applying to multiple schools that use that application. W ill you get in? Calculate your chances of getting in with this free tool from Cappex. Admissions Data (2016) University of New Hampshire Acceptance Rate: 76  percentGPA, SAT and ACT Graph for UNHTest Scores: 25th / 75th PercentileSAT Critical Reading: 490 / 590SAT Math: 500 / 610SAT Writing: - / -What these SAT numbers meanNew Hampshire colleges SAT comparisonAmerica East Conference SAT score comparisonACT Composite: 22 / 27ACT English: 22 / 27ACT Math: 22  / 27What these ACT numbers meanNew Hampshire colleges ACT comparisonAmerica East Conference ACT score comparison UNH Description The University of New Hampshires main campus is located in Durham, a seacoast town with a population similar to the university. Boston is about an hour away, as is excellent skiing in the White Mountains. The university has an 18 to 1  student/faculty ratio, and high achieving and motivated students should check out the opportunities available through the Honors Program. For its academic strengths, UNH was awarded a chapter of  Phi Beta Kappa. In athletics, the UNH Wildcats compete in the NCAA Division I  Colonial Athletic Association  for football, and the  America East Conference  for many other sports. Enrollment (2016) Total Enrollment: 15,188 (12,857 undergraduates)Gender Breakdown: 46 percent male / 54 percent female97 percent full-time Costs (2016-17) Tuition and Fees: $17,624  (in-state); $31,424  (out-of-state)Books: $1,200 (why so much?)Room and Board: $10,938Other Expenses: $2,438Total Cost: $32,200  (in-state); $46,000 (out-of-state) UNH Financial Aid (2015-16) Percentage of New Students Receiving Aid: 85  percentPercentage of New Students Receiving Types of AidGrants: 70 percentLoans: 71  percentAverage Amount of AidGrants: $12,196Loans: $10,169 Academic Programs Most Popular Majors:  Biology, Business Administration, Communication Studies, English, Kinesiology and Exercise Science, Nursing, Political Science, PsychologyWhat major is right for you?  Sign up to take the free My Careers and Majors Quiz at Cappex. Graduation, Retention and Transfer Rates First Year Student Retention (full-time students): 86  percent4-Year Graduation Rate: 67 percent6-Year Graduation Rate: 78  percent Intercollegiate Athletic Programs Mens Sports:  Football, Ice Hockey, Skiing, Basketball, Cross Country, SoccerWomens Sports:  Lacrosse, Skiing, Soccer, Basketball, Gymnastics, Field Hockey If You Like UNH, You May Also Like These Schools: University of Vermont: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphQuinnipiac University: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphBoston University: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphRoger Williams University: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphBoston College: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphEndicott College: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphSyracuse University: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphPlymouth State University: Profile  University of Connecticut: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphUMass - Amherst: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphUniversity of Maine: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT Graph Data Source: National Center for Educational Statistics

The Most Important Day of My Life Essays

The Most Important Day of My Life Essays The Most Important Day of My Life Paper The Most Important Day of My Life Paper In The Most Important Day of My Life, Helen Keller narrates how her patient and loving teacher inspired and enabled her to learn despite her disabilities. The essay is a narrative account of her blossoming from a seven year old girl facing the difficulties of learning with her disabilities to someone who is passionate for learning and discovering things. She begins the story of her educational journey on the day she meets her teacher, Anne Mansfield Sullivan, for the first time. She is just about to be seven years old and has never experienced formal education, largely due to the fact that she is blind, mute and deaf. She describes the anxious moment with luscious detail, capturing her sense of hope and anticipation. Being disabled, Keller thinks of herself as a â€Å"great ship† in a â€Å"dense fog,† desperate to find light and direction (Keller, 1998, 8). She believes that on that day, the â€Å"light of love† begins shining on her life (Keller, 1998, 9). Keller then proceeds to tell the early stages of her education with Sullivan. She describes Sullivan’s simple yet uncanny method of finger play in which Sullivan spells the word doll after giving the young Keller one. Sullivan’s instruction begins to be more complex as she teaches Keller small words and word association to enable Keller in identifying objects around her. Keller’s blindness makes it difficult for her to appreciate the words associated to things because she has not seen any of it. But Sullivan is patient and persistent. She thinks of creative ways to help Keller appreciate the things she is learning. After breaking the doll she got from Sullivan, Keller is taken by her teacher to the garden where she teaches her the meaning of water, a concept Keller could not understand at first. Sullivan’s creativity pays off and Keller’s mind opens up to the rich world of language. She says that the â€Å"living word awakened [her] soul† and that her new found ability to name things has given her hope and light in darkness. She begins to see how she is connected to the world (Keller, 1998, 10). The passion for learning ignites her mind and heart, and things around her suddenly â€Å"quiver with life† (Keller, 1998, 10). She develops sentiment and tenderness as a result of discovering her connection to things. Realizing what she has done to the doll, she tries to put back its pieces together. Besides discovering the passion of learning, Keller also becomes an eager student. She grabs every opportunity to learn what she can. Sullivan widens Keller’s perspective by relating her thoughts to nature and teaching her its beauty and wonder. Despite the absence of sight, Keller sees and appreciates the works of nature and feels one with it. However, Keller learns that nature is not as kind as she thinks. After getting trapped on top of tree in a thunderstorm, Keller learns fear. It takes her a while to regain her trust in nature and the irresistible charm of the mimosa tree to feel once again her connection to nature. As she climbs the tree by herself, her curiosity for â€Å"doing something unusual† is revived in her heart (Keller, 1998, 12). Keller realizes that learning language is gradual and for the deaf child, difficult and challenging. But the fruits of discovering language is always rewarding. As she gains more words, her ideas become more complex and her questions incessant. Upon hearing the word love from Sullivan, Keller encounters abstract ideas and begins to grapple with their meaning. Sullivan’s ingenuity enables Keller to associate the abstract with the concrete as Sullivan connects love with familiar concepts such as clouds, rain and flowers. Keller believes that Sullivan’s treatment of her as a normal child has helped her enormously. As Sullivan augments Keller’s disability through patient repetitions and training, Keller gains confidence to participate in conversations. She is able to overcome the difficulties of her disability by learning from life itself- a life enriched by her gracious teacher. Sullivan has molded her and fulfilled her potential. She has given her hope and â€Å"breathed†¦love, joy †¦and meaning† to everything around Keller (Keller, 1998, 14). It is Sullivan’s genius as a teacher, grace for Keller’s disability and vision for the young girl that has widened the depth and breadth of Keller’s mind. Keller describes Sullivan’s vision for her student through an image of nature which she has learned from the great teacher. From Sullivan, Keller learns that education is beyond the classroom and beyond the routine teaching of skills and concepts. A teacher must instill in his student’s mind the freedom he has from learning because this will enable him to face its challenges. Keller concludes by giving homage to Sullivan, pertaining to her as an extension of herself, a person who is in union with her being. It is impossible for her to have the imagination and intelligence she has without the guidance of Sullivan.

Critical Review. for Culinary Course Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Critical Review. for Culinary Course - Essay Example The sustainability of this tourism depends on the locality of culinary foods farmers. Major scenarios crises of this tourism include the contamination of foods, fear of unhealthy competition and natural disaster strikes. The aftermath of these is a detrimental damage to culinary tourism industry profits as well as tainting its name. The greatest odd time to make decisions on crisis management is during the calamity itself and all the stakeholders should be well equipped to handle the situation critically in order to reduce or prevent loss. Culinary tourism is becoming widely known and is offered in many places. Therefore, food is not only linked to it original region but it has become a marketing tool. For example, by exploring Ontario as a potential candidate in this lucrative business of culinary tourism in reference to global market place, the emerging issue is whether it can be sustained or not (Hall, 2013). Sustainability in this point of view is the ability of this tourism indu stry to protect its products, conservation of resources and give respect to the people traditions aiming for quality experience instead of monetary achievement. Market for culinary tourism recognition has led to a paramount significance in the economy of Ontario in 2001 ever since from its tourism ministry (Hall, 2013). The greatest factor to consider while establishing culinary tourism sustainability in Ontario is the part played by farmers in land treatment methods, where food is produced and sustainability regard to them to ensure the availability of sufficient food for various eating places. The consequences of poor farming habits is the land deterioration leading to poor yields as there is no attention given to the productivity of the soil. One is in a position to come across such poor farming habits in countries where education levels of farmer’s leaves a lot to be desired as they are not in a position to maintain the proportionality of soil productivity and high crop y ields (Hall, 2013). In the Southeast Asian country of Laos, the increased population led to land fragmentation to residential area leaving little for farming with the little left being over exploited. This in return led to food shortages which negatively affect culinary tourism in Ontario. The example given leads to a conclusion that the implementation of well researched systems should be put in place for the sustainability of agriculture to avoid such occurrence in Ontario (Hall, 2013). With culinary tourism trying to grow to the highest heights of attraction in Ontario, there is a call for sustainable farming methods which are more effective than our current farming methods in which only 38% of world land is utilized in farming alongside 70% of world’s water. These statistical data are according to United Nation Environmental Programme (UNEP). In the province investors who wish to be identified in as far a culinary tourist sites are concerned should develop a relationship w ith farmers who have adequate knowledge of sustainable farming habits (Hall, 2013). There are various organizations like the Ecological Farmers Association of Ontario which is in the forefront in the dissemination of knowledge and educational tools to farmers to give great care to their farmland. Also, Ontario Soil and Crop Improvement Association, degrees and diplomas in agriculture sustainability found in schools such as Tent and Guelp University. By making use of these resources,